International Law Benefitting Humans

Question: Depict about the International Law and a few elements about the law. Answer: The International Law: 100 Ways it Shapes Our Lives was conceptualized from the possibility that International Law exists as well as dives deep and comprehensively into everyones life than how it is commonly perceived. One can discover 101 International Laws which are profiting people since ages. These laws have molded our lives to be better and made sure about. Today we will talk about around 12 of my preferred such laws. The presence of the Prime Meridian and the Greenwich Meridian one can understand what is the current information or time dependent on their area on planet Earth. I picked this as it encourages me know about the information and time when im voyaging cross nations. Mail administration With trust and unwavering quality today I am ready to utilize postal system to speak with my friends and family. Independent of my area or theirs I can be certain that my correspondence will be gotten by them. Safe driving International law has ensured drivers everywhere throughout the world maintain security gauges. Consequently, regardless of where I drive or somebody drives me I think everything is under the International Law. Home Being ready to consider what I own as my own home gives huge security. Under law one can take responsibility for own bought land Media communications With broadcast communications now no more are my friends and family far. Under law I am ready to speak with any one I need. Normalized one second time A period length of one second is same wherever on the planet. Consequently, this helps settling on amazing choices and estimations in ones life Programming International law causes us utilize normalized programming in our PCs everywhere throughout the world. Climate information The most recent climate conjecture settled on helps deciding. It likewise defends human life from unsure climate perils. News and information The whole world is at our home TV. With global law everybody can get most recent news from everywhere throughout the world. BBC Radio communicate For me hearing BBC while driving on my radio causes me a ton. Being related with the securities exchange I get the most recent updates on the monetary states of the nation Eatables A wide assortment of eatables helps keep sound. Food is the embodiment of life and it keeps me alive. Alongside food new clean drinking water is alive as well. Solace garments For the best possible introduction of my own self im offered better than average, reasonable and great quality garments anyplace I go on the planet.

What are the main differences in the organisation of the labour Essay

What are the primary contrasts in the association of the work procedure in Fordism and Post-Fordism Use a contextual analysis to clarify your answer - Essay Example The activity in the modern units wasn’t empowering for the representatives. The assembling strategy was not engaging for the workforce. Researchers were examining in regards to creative procedures which could raise the riches and could construct their country more grounded. Post-Fordism is established on the matchless quality of an adaptable and enduringly imaginative model of development and it depends on adaptable creation, developing incomes for proficient representatives (Jessop, N.D.). This article clarifies the different highlights of Fordism and post-Fordism Fordism is a model of Taylorism. Friedrich Taylor (1856-1915) talked with respect to the essentialness of a reasonable and fit association of partnerships by consistency of the assembling system. In Taylorism the officials had less understanding in regards to the viable work engaged with the creation; subsequently the administrators must be familiar with how the assembling was arranged. Taylor expressed that the potential speculation should be isolated from the shop and set in the arranging office offering duty to official to work severely official in its character. The administrators needed to fix on what the workers should perform. This is the genuine importance of Taylorism: the parcel of reasoning and doing. While a worker thought in regards to his activity he familiar with it and attempts to improve it. Human and machine must be unified with no estimation for the worker that he is a sort of a robot. The planning division required to have a proficient assembling method despite the fact that laborers needed to have a brilliant installment, less working hours and a decent workplace. Passage acknowledged the centrality of the connection including worker and boss. He set up an eight-hour workday and offered improved installment for upgraded creation. Anyway these advancements were set up on a money related base to make improved profit of work (Beek, et al. N.D). Henry Ford was an acknowledged image of the change from

How to Write a Term Paper Wiseessays Com

How to Write a Term Paper Wiseessays ComMost students have a pretty difficult time figuring out how to write a term paper in the first place. It's one of those problems that's so seemingly impossible to solve that most students either give up or make it really hard for themselves. I'm going to show you how to write a term paper using a technique that I call Wiseessays Com. This method is simple, cheap, and easy.The first thing you need to understand about writing a term paper is that you can't get too specific. You need to be as general as possible. You don't want to put too much thought into your term paper because you don't want to spend too much time thinking about the subject matter. But, you also don't want to be too specific either because you don't want to waste time and effort just to have to find and fix something you didn't think about.The best way to approach writing a term paper is to write a piece that will help you increase your confidence in taking out the trash and du mping your laundry. Write a term paper on writing a term paper on that and then you'll be well on your way to being able to tackle the task at hand. Here's the Wiseessays Com method for you.The first thing you need to do is grab a piece of paper and a pen. That's what I use and it works pretty well. Just write down a few things you'd like to include in your term paper and then write a little description about why you feel that this is a good piece of writing and not something you should be wasting your time on.If you don't have any type of word processing software on your computer, I recommend using Word Perfect because it's free and it's pretty basic. I also recommend running it on a blank document because it will make it a lot easier to determine how many sentences you need and when you need them. Then all you need to do is just fill it out with your emotions and thoughts.When you're actually sitting down to write a term paper, the phrase Wiseessays Com comes in handy. Wiseessays Com is the process of writing a term paper using the Wiseessays format, which is essentially a word processor type of format that makes it easy to do, cheap, and fun. You basically just copy and paste the text into your document and copy and paste some passages.A good term paper doesn't necessarily have to be perfect. It just has to be effective at the very least.You could write a term paper without any discipline and still come out with a great piece of writing. You just need to keep your confidence in check and do a little bit of the Wiseessays format and you'll be fine.

EVALUATION OF RESOURES Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Assessment OF RESOURES - Essay Example Considering the potential effect of ICT in the learning exercises of the understudies, instructive specialists have been reliably concentrating how ICT can be utilized as an academic apparatus in improving the learning capacity of the understudies. (Pearson, 2003; National Research Council, 2000) For this investigation, the analyst will decide the commitment of the accompanying learning assets: advanced cameras, Alphasmart key watchman, Microsoft PowerPoint introduction and Microsoft Word towards the learning exercises of the standard and unique instructive needs (SEN) understudies by leading a short writing audit. Preceding the end, the specialist will lead a quantitative and subjective study investigation so as to assess the effect of these learning assets with the Science learning exercises of standard and SEN understudies. Corresponding to the learning exercises of standard and SEN understudies, innovation can be utilized as an educating and learning instrument that empowers the teachers and understudies to become co-students by cooperatively building information. (Reed and McNergney, 2000) For example, the utilization of advanced cameras empower the teachers and understudies to record instructive excursion or a particular learning experience to empower the two gatherings to audit the learning procedure on a later date. In accordance with this issue, innovation behind computerized cameras make it feasible for teachers and understudies to encounter a certifiable instances of ‘learning by doing.’ Contingent upon the learning capacity of these understudies, understudies could without much of a stretch make a school report by recording certain learning occasions utilizing the computerized camera with the end goal of a gathering or individual class introduction. (Wellington and Wellington, 2002) during the time spent having the option to make a class introduction utilizing digitalized visual materials, the understudies will have the option to construct fearlessness with their work since these materials could empower them to catch

Innovative Approaches to Corporate Management

Inventive Approaches to Corporate Management Free Online Research Papers After a seemingly endless amount of time after year similar organizations wind up on the Fortune 500 rundown. One shared factor has been their way to deal with corporate administration. All together for an organization to be effective in today’s advertise, organizations must have an obvious vision as a statement of purpose and make a corporate culture which moves that vision into a reality. Organizations can't fear change, but instead grasp it and view it as an approach to take their organizations to the following level and become a model for different organizations to copy. Inventive Approaches to Corporate Management In 2001, Enron, situated in Houston, Texas, was one of the world’s driving power, petroleum gas, and interchanges organizations. Fortune Magazine named Enron as one of America’s most creative organization for six successive years from 1996-2001(Enron, 2006). Enron was very much situated in the market, and there appeared to be no halting this powerhouse organization. Before the finish of 2001, Enron had defaulted on some loans and turned out to be, ostensibly, the greatest corporate disappointment in American history because of poor corporate administration (Epstein, 2006). While Enron’s Chief Executive Officer, officials, and directors let debasement, contemptibility, and avarice be their mantra for corporate administration, effective organizations, for example, Microsoft were prospering by adopting creative strategies to their corporate administration arrangements. Microsoft was established in 1975 by Bill Gates and Paul Allen in Albuquerque, New Mexico and consolidates in 1981 (Microsoft, 2007). More than 30 years after the fact Microsoft has become the main programming organization on the planet today on account of the improvement of a product bundle called Windows (Microsoft, 2007). Windows is found on essentially every home and office PC being used today. In monetary year 2006, Microsoft produced over $44 billion dollars and returned $26 billion to its investors (Microsoft, 2007). Presently, Microsoft utilizes more than 76,000 individuals in more than 100 nations and keeps on extending to new markets (Microsoft, 2007). Microsoft’s by and large achievement can be ascribed to their corporate administration and corporate administration. In the 1970’s and mid 1980’s organizations ordinarily held executive gatherings, and the administrators sat in the meeting space to choose the company’s destiny in their morning gatherings. Before the finish of the 1980’s and the mid 1990’s, organizations utilized new strategies by employing supposed visionaries to help bring their organization into the new thousand years, however experienced difficulty executing the vision into a working arrangement, or they confronted opposition from the basic laborer who couldn't exactly observe the â€Å"big picture† on the grounds that they were not aware of the considerable number of bits of the riddle. Organizations like Microsoft had the option to outperform their opposition by moving that vision from the board space to the quarterly shareholder’s meeting and afterward to the lunchroom with the goal that they had the option to move their vision into execution. A prime case of Microsoft moving v ision into execution is the gaming framework X-Box. At the point when Bill Gates initially declared the X-Box when the new century rolled over, everybody thought he was frantic or outright insane. Sony was the leader with the Playstation, and Nintendo was running a nearby second with the Game Cube, while Sega was raising the back in third spot with the Saturn (Chang Kakuchi, 2000). The gaming market appeared to be difficult to infiltrate given the opposition creating such quality gaming frameworks, however Microsoft was resolved to declare their essence with expert in an industry noted for its resistance to pariahs. Entryways promoted his vision to deliver a gaming console to more than 150 engineers including any semblance of Activision, Konami, Capcom, Eidos, Epic, and in the end Entertainment Arts (Microsoft, 2007). After seven years, Microsoft has asserted the number two spot, just somewhat behind Sony (Ars Technia, 2007). Having a dream is a certain something, anyway having the option to adequately impart that vision to the most minimal level inside the organization is another methodology corporate directors are taking. Corporate correspondence is fundamental in deciding the achievement of a business. For a business to run effectively, great lines of correspondence must be set up among the executives and staff. Numerous organizations allude to this methodology as the â€Å"open door† or the â€Å"top down† arrangement. Inventive scholars understood that senior initiative didn't generally have the appropriate responses or present the best thoughts and that occasionally the best thoughts originated from the hourly representative out in the channels doing the day by day commonplace work. Being open and responsive to such thoughts permitted workers to make their own vision and advanced a feeling of cooperation. Accomplishing that â€Å"buy-in† from workers and permitting them to feel as though they can influence change is basic to organization endurance and life span. Communicating vision to representatives, however investors and clients too, is additionally another imaginative methodology found inside numerous effective organizations. Microsoft directs quarterly investor gatherings to convey the present status of the organization by giving their speculators and clients exact and genuine data concerning budgetary reports, innovations, workers, and development plans, just to give some examples (Microsoft, 2007). Notwithstanding quarterly gatherings, Microsoft likewise posts the data on their site for people in general to see too. The group idea is one more methodology predominant in a considerable lot of the top organizations recorded on the Fortune 500. Rather than a senior to subordinate relationship, fruitful organizations are adjusting to a partner to colleague plan of action. The advantages of group building exercises increment group inspiration in a fun and loosened up condition: they support camaraderie, increment correspondence, get groups cooperating, help groups to become acquainted with one another, improve authority aptitudes, assist groups with learning new quality and assemble trust inside organizations (Accolade, 2007). Another advantage of group building is the breakdown of conventional hindrances that were regularly business as usual in corporate America. By moving the chiefs out of their private workplaces and permitting representatives to cooperate with them on a progressively close to home level, it made a situation substantially more helpful for joint effort. Corporate directors must be t he first to step outside of their customary ranges of familiarity and lead. Today, the job of corporate administration is to encourage change. One methodology that Microsoft advances is the execution of more current advances. An examination division inside Microsoft is â€Å"dedicated to directing both essential and applied research in software engineering and programming engineering†(Microsoft, 2007). They straightforwardly team up with numerous schools and colleges everywhere throughout the globe. With the bounty of progress happening in the corporate world, and the usage of more up to date advances, the street ahead can be hazy. It is imperative to make a corporate culture which takes into account workers to beat their feelings of trepidation: dread of the obscure and dread of being off-base. A great deal can be said about an organization just by investigating the corporate culture and the manner in which representatives are dealt with. As per Wong (2002), there are four sound styles of corporate societies: Progressive-versatile culture, Purpose-driven culture, Community-arranged culture, and Peo ple-focused culture. Organizations are not multi-million dollar companies for the time being and advancements are not imagined in a day. As a rule, a lot of experimentation goes into the disclosure of more up to date and improved approaches to work together and smoothing out procedures. In the end the wrongs will transform into rights, the obscure will become more clear, and the vision will turn into a reality. Enron, Tyco, Adelphia, and Worldcom are largely instances of late corporate disappointments (The University of Chicago Graduate School of Business, 2007). Their disappointments all come down to one normal mix-up, poor corporate administration. In the interim, similar organizations reliably keep on making the Fortune 500 rundown quite a long time after year. Investigating the course of history and the development for every one of these organizations, their prosperity can be characterized by the advancements to their each and own corporate administration approaches. References Honor. (2007). Group building. Recovered June 16, 2007, from honor corporate- events.com/group building.htm Ars Technia, LLC. (2007). From the news work area. Recovered June 17, 2007, from http://arstechnica.com/news.ars/post/20060611-7030.html Chang, M., Kakuchi, S. (2000). Business: Game, set and match. Asia Week, 29, 26 Enron Creditors Recovery Corp. (2006). Public statements 2001. Recovered June 15, 2007, from enron.com/corp/pressroom/discharges/2001 Epstein, A. (2006, July 7). The Unlearned Lesson of Ken Lay and Enron. Private enterprise Magazine. Recovered June 15, 2007, from http://capmag.com/index.asp Microsoft Corporation. (2007). Yearly reportst. Recovered June 16, 2007, from microsoft.com Microsoft Corporation. (2007). Quick realities about Microsoft. Recovered June 16, 2007, from microsoft.com Microsoft Corporation. (2007). News chronicle. Recovered June 16, 2007, from microsoft.com The University of Chicago Graduate School of Business. (2007). Capital thoughts. Recovered June 17, 2007, from chicagogsb.edu/capideas/fall03/corporategovernance.html Wong, P. T. P. (2002). Making a positive, important work atmosphere: another test for the executives and administration. In B. Pattanayak and V. Gupta (Eds.) Creating performing associations: International points of view for Indian administration. New Delhi, India: Sage. Research Papers on Innovative Approaches to Corporate ManagementThe Project Managment Office SystemAnalysis of Ebay Expanding into AsiaMarketing of Lifeboy Soap A Unilever ProductTwilight of t

Data And Sampling Procedure Finance Essay - Free Essay Example

Alternative Investment Market is a part of the London Stock Exchange market and it is designed for small and emerging companies to raise money from the public. The purpose of this report is to find and analyse the variables affect the non-financial companies IPO initial return in AIM between 2005 and 2010. Data and Sampling procedure Our main sources of information are the London Stock Exchange website, Perfect filings and Bloomberg, where we obtained all the necessary company information for analysis. First of all, we selected all the companies which started floating on the AIM between January 2005 and December 2010 from the London Stock Exchange Website, there were 1142 companies in total. After excluding all the financial-related companies and outliers which had exceptionally high initial returns, we then split up the remaining companies into two groups according to their listing year to observe the impact of financial crisis. We assumed the beginning of 2008 is the breaking point of the crisis. Secondly, we applied the stratified random sampling procedure to select companies respectively for each sample. We obtained two samples of 46 companies each, for which Sample 1 consists of companies that were listed before 2008 and Sample 2 consists of companies that listed after 2008. Descriptive statistics Regarding to our two samples, on average, companies from Sample 1 have raised 160.21m and companies from Sample 2 have raised 231.33m from the AIM where INTERNATIONAL FERRO METALS and SKIL PORTS LOGISTICS LTD are the highest-valued IPO deals within their sample which rose 800m and 760m respectively. In Sample 1, the offer price ranges between 2p and 503.7p and has a mean of 102.92p (See Appendix Table 1). On the other hand, the offer size of Sample 2 ranges between 0.6p and 13000p with a mean of 385.83p in Sample 2 (See Appendix Table 2). Lastly, Sample 1 has a standard deviation of 92.141 where that of Sample 2 is 1904.855, this huge difference is mainly due to the 13000p offer price issued by TGE MARINE AG. Methodology Formulae for Initial return: Firstly, we calculated the initial return (ri) for each company and this was computed by finding the difference between the closing price on the 7th day (Pi) after flotation and the offering price (OPi) and then divide it by the OPi. We then computed the average returns and the standard deviations of the initial returns for each sample. Formulae for Mean and Standard Deviation: (Note: n is the number of companies in each sample) In order to test whether the initial return of each sample is statistically different from zero, we performed a t-test (since the population variance is unknown) to check whether the mean initial return of each sample is different from zero, and the Null Hypothesis is expressed as follow: Furthermore, we applied another t-test to assess whether the initial returns of our 2 samples are statistically different. Since it is not reasonable to assume the population standard deviations of the two samples are equal and at the same time they are unknown, we apply the t statistic and the Hypothesis Test as follow: After the tests, we proceeded to the next stage where we analysed the factors and variables that would affect the initial returns of IPOs on the AIM. We performed a Linear Regression Analysis to explore the correlations between our chosen independent variables and the initial returns whilst taking into account of the additive and multiplicative dummy variables which would represent the qualitative variables[1]. Results Initial returns We tested each sample individually and we found that the mean of each sample is significantly different from zero (at 5% significant level) and in general the closing prices of the stocks after 7days are higher than the offer prices (See Appendix Table 3-5). This is reflected in the positive means of initial returns in the two samples. Hence, the companies in both samples are on average underpriced and when investors buy an IPO and hold it for a week, they can still obtain a minimum of 10% positive return. We also took another test to check whether the initial returns of the two samples are significantly different from each other. However, the result is insignificant (at 5% significant level) which reflects the 2008 financial crisis has no real impact on the initial returns of IPOs after 2008 (See Appendix Table 6). Since the test results show that the IPOs are underpriced, we identified several factors both quantitative and qualitative that might contribute to such outcome. Money left on the table Money left on the table is the difference between the first day closing price and the offer price and multiplied by the number of shares. It is the total amount of money investors are willing to pay over the original money required by the issuers. According to Ritter and Loughran (2004), if the investors are paying a premium over the issue price value on the first day of quoting, then it is expected that the short-term returns on the investment on those companies should be higher. Our results (coefficient 2.10e-09) (See Appendix Table 7) indicated that money left on the table has a positive impact on the return obtained by investor on a week after the issue date, and such low value is explained by Money left on the table usually is a big amount on money in comparison with percentage return registered on the initial return. It has a p-value of 0.000 at 5% significant level, hence it should be included in the model. Market value Market value takes into account the market capitalization and the debt outstanding in the company. Market value can be defined as the company size by proxy. Ibboston and Ritter (1994) found that in short run there is a negative impact on the return on the investments of new companies when the companies are larger and it is presumed that there is less uncertainty. According to our model results, Market value has the expected negative effect on initial return, with coefficient of -6.27e10 and it has a p-value of 0.000 (See Appendix Table 7) which is highly significant, so we are keeping the variable in the model. Market index return According to Boubaker (2011), market return over a period has a significant effect on the IPO listing. The market index acts as an investor behaviour sentiment indicator, so the return of stock on that day is highly correlated to the return on the index and therefore contributes to the underpricing or overpricing of IPOs. The linear regression gave the market index (AXX Index) return a p-value of 0.009 and a correlation coefficient of 1.57 (See Appendix Table 7) which we were able to prove that it is a significant independent variable that has a positive correlation with the initial return of IPO. Earnings before IPO Profit of a company is a very important factor for investor to consider as it represents the profitability of the firm and would ultimately affect investors expectation and return. As the study paper (Rhee, 2002) prepared for the OECD Round Table meeting shows there is a 30% difference in returns for IPOs between companies with positive and negative earnings. We took this as an independent variable and obtained the profit figures from every companys annual report in our samples. The result shows that the coefficient is and p-value of this variable is 0.347 (See Appendix Table 7), hence it is insignificant at the 5% significance level. We found no evidence for effects of earning management to initial returns for IPO. Number of shares traded after 7 days to number of shares issued The number of shares traded on the day has an impact on the return on share, Cornelli et al (2006) discovered that the total volume of transaction is positively correlated to investor behaviour which leads to higher prices, and hence higher initial returns. On the basis of our two samples extracted from the AIM, we are unable to establish these findings, since the regression result demonstrated the p-value of this variable is 0.145 which is higher than the 5% significant level (See Appendix Table 7). Therefore, there is no correlation between this factor and the initial return and it should not be incorporated into our model. Dummy Variables Regression with dummies and interactive dummies: We considered 3 models: Model 1(dummies only): Model 2(interactive dummies only): Model 3(both dummies and interactive dummies): (Note: The full outcome of regression analysis is shown in the Appendix Table 8-10) Monday effect dummy variable On the secondary market, there are several anomalies which are not following the Efficient Market Hypothesis (EMH) and capital asset pricing model (CAPM), such as the January effect (Haugen and Lakonishok, 1998; Ligon, 1997), the holiday effect (Ariel, 1990) and Monday effect (Jones and Ligon, 2009). IPOs offered on Monday are claimed to have higher initial return comparing to the other days in the week. We adopt this variable and take it as a dummy in our model where companies listed on Monday are denoted as 1 and companies listed on other days are 0. Research shows that calendar effect is not apparent in our samples with a p-value of 0.447 and a coefficient of 0.0238259. The result turns out to be insignificant at 5% significant level and it is inconsistent with the findings mentioned above. Sector dummy variable Ritter J.R. (1984) suggested that the returns are clustered according to sectors, therefore it is possible that sector variable can influence the return of the stock so we decided to use sector as a dummy variable. We used 1 for companies that belong to the energy and commodities industry and 0 for the rest. From the regression results, we were not able to identify a regular pattern that would justify the sector dummy variable having an impact on the initial returns. The sector dummy has a p-value of 0.211 which is not significant. Country dummy variable Demaskey and Olson (2006) explained that by disaggregating the return of ADRs according to the country of origin, there are significant differences in initial and aftermarket performances. We decided to use country origin of the company as a dummy variable and put 1 for UK companies and 0 for others. The p-value is 0.402 which suggests that the country variable is insignificant for the sample used. Underwriter ranking dummy variable Lowry et al (2010) believed that the actions (i.e. price revision) of underwriter would affect the pricing error of IPOs. They also mentioned that the higher the reputation of underwriters, the better the after-IPO service. In our model, rather than using Carter and Manaster (1990) underwriter ranking score as Lowry et al did, we chose another updated 2007 underwriter top 50 ranking from Bloomberg, and assumed the ranking of underwriter is constant from 2005 to 2010. We marked 1 for the dummy variable if the underwriter of IPO is in the list. As a result, it has a positive correlation coefficient and the p-value is 0.25 which is not significant. R2 increases from Model 1 to Model 3 because the more the variables, the higher the explanatory power of the model which implies that R2 is not a reasonable indicator. We then looked at the adjusted R2, and discovered that Model 1 gave the largest adjusted R2 (26.36%), which means putting aside the number of variables, model 1 best explained the dependent variable. Considering the independent variables are significant only in Model 1, we believe it is the best model among the three. Although the adjusted R2 of the original model and Model 1 are similar, we prefer the original model since none of the dummy variables in Model 1 is significant. Final insights This study aims at analysing the pricing of the IPOs on AIM and there are several points that we would like to address. Before conducting any tests, we anticipated that the financial crisis in 2008 would adversely affect the performance of the IPOs, but surprisingly the impact is negligible based on our hypothesis test afterwards. We tested the IPOs in our samples and proved that they were generally underpriced, and this is consistent with the past studies. We also investigated five quantitative variables and four qualitative variables and ultimately, we restricted and finalised our model with only three explanatory variables which are money left on the table, market value and market index return. Based on our analysis, these three variables have significant effects on the initial returns of IPOs and these are consistent with other empirical findings. However, for the factors that were assumed to be influential for underpricing such as earnings, the listing day, trading volume, sectors, country origin of the company and broker rankings are not significant determinants of the initial returns of the IPOs and this contradicts to the literatures we were referencing to. Finally, we suggest investors to invest in IPOs on the AIM when the following conditions are met: high market index return, companies with small ma rket value and big money left on the table. Appendix: Table 1 Table 2 Table 3Table 4 Table 5 Table 6 Table 7 Table 8 Table 9 Table 10

History and Origins of Wheat Domestication

Wheat is a grain crop with some 25,000 different cultivars in the world today. It was domesticated at least 12,000 years ago, created from a still-living ancestor plant known as emmer. Wild emmer (reported variously as T. araraticum, T. turgidum ssp. dicoccoides, or T. dicocoides), is a predominantly self-pollinating, winter annual grass of the Poaceae family and Triticeae tribe. It is distributed throughout the Near Eastern Fertile Crescent, including the modern countries of Israel, Jordan, Syria, Lebanon, eastern Turkey, western Iran, and northern Iraq. It grows in sporadic and semi-isolated patches and does best in regions with long, hot dry summers and short mild, wet winters with fluctuating rainfall. Emmer grows in diverse habitats from 100 m (330 ft) below sea level to 1700 m (5,500 ft) above, and can survive on between 200–1,300 mm (7.8–66 in) of annual precipitation. Wheat Varieties Most of the 25,000 different forms of modern wheat are varieties of two broad groups, called common wheat and durum wheat. Common or bread wheat Triticum aestivum accounts for some 95 percent of all the consumed wheat in the world today; the other five percent is made up of durum or hard wheat T. turgidum ssp. durum, used in pasta and semolina products. Bread and durum wheat are both domesticated forms of wild emmer wheat. Spelt (T. spelta) and Timopheevs wheat (T. timopheevii) were also developed from emmer wheats by the late Neolithic period, but neither has much of a market today. Another early form of wheat called einkorn (T. monococcum) was domesticated at about the same time but has limited distribution today. Origins of Wheat The origins of our modern wheat, according to genetics and archaeological studies, are found in the Karacadag mountain region of what is today southeastern Turkey—emmer and einkorn wheats are two of the classic eight founder crops of the origins of agriculture. The earliest known use of emmer was gathered from wild patches by the people who lived at the Ohalo II archaeological site in Israel, about 23,000 years ago. The earliest cultivated emmer has been found in the southern Levant (Netiv Hagdud, Tell Aswad, other Pre-Pottery Neolithic A sites); while einkorn is found in the northern Levant (Abu Hureyra, Mureybet, Jerf el Ahmar, Gà ¶bekli Tepe). Changes During Domestication The main differences between the wild forms and domesticated wheat are that domesticated forms have larger seeds with hulls and a non-shattering rachis. When wild wheat is ripe, the rachis—the stem that keeps the wheat shafts together—shatters so that the seeds can disperse themselves. Without hulls, they germinate rapidly. But that naturally useful brittleness doesnt suit humans, who prefer to harvest wheat from the plant rather than off the surrounding earth. One possible way that might have occurred is that farmers harvested wheat after it was ripe, but before it self-dispersed, thereby collecting only the wheat that was still attached to the plant. By planting those seeds the next season, the farmers were perpetuating plants that had later-breaking rachises. Other traits apparently selected for include spike size, growing season, plant height, and grain size. According to French botanist Agathe Roucou and colleagues, the domestication process also caused multiple changes in the plant that were generated indirectly. Compared to emmer wheat, modern wheat has shorter leaf longevity, and a higher net rate of photosynthesis, leaf production rate, and nitrogen content. Modern wheat cultivars also have a shallower root system, with a larger proportion of fine roots, investing biomass above rather than below ground. Ancient forms have built-in coordination between above and below ground functioning, but the human selection of other traits has forced the plant to reconfigure and build new networks. How Long Did Domestication Take? One of the ongoing arguments about wheat is the length of time it took for the domestication process to complete. Some scholars argue for a fairly rapid process, of a few centuries; while others argue that the process from cultivation to domestication took up to 5,000 years. The evidence is abundant that by about 10,400 years ago, domesticated wheat was in widespread use throughout the Levant region; but when that started is up for debate. The earliest evidence for both domesticated einkorn and emmer wheat found to date was at the Syrian site of Abu Hureyra, in occupation layers dated to the Late Epi-paleolithic period, the beginning of the Younger Dryas, ca 13,000–12,000 cal BP; some scholars have argued, however, that the evidence does not show deliberate cultivation at this time, although it does indicate a broadening of the diet base to include a reliance on wild grains including the wheat. Spread Around the Globe: Bouldnor Cliff The distribution of wheat outside of its place of origin is part of the process known as Neolithicization. The culture generally associated with the introduction of wheat and other crops from Asia to Europe is generally the Lindearbandkeramik (LBK) culture, which may have been made up of part immigrant farmers and part local hunter-gatherers adapting new technologies. LBK is typically dated in Europe between 5400–4900 BCE. However, recent DNA studies at Bouldnor Cliff peat bog off the northern coast of mainland England have identified ancient DNA from what was apparently domesticated wheat. Wheat seeds, fragments, and pollen were not found at Bouldnor Cliff, but the DNA sequences from the sediment match Near Eastern wheat, genetically different from LBK forms. Further tests at Bouldnor Cliff have identified a submerged Mesolithic site, 16 m (52 ft) below sea level. The sediments were laid down about 8,000 years ago, several centuries earlier than the European LBK sites. Scholars suggest that the wheat got to Britain by boat. Other scholars have questioned the date, and the aDNA identification, saying it was in too good a condition to be that old. But additional experiments run by British evolutionary geneticist Robin Allaby and preliminarily reported in Watson (2018) have shown that ancient DNA from undersea sediments is more pristine than that from other contexts.   Sources Avni, Raz, et al. Wild Emmer Genome Architecture and Diversity Elucidate Wheat Evolution and Domestication. Science, vol. 357, no. 6346, 2017, pp. 93–97. Print.International Wheat Genome Sequencing Consortium. A Chromosome-Based Draft Sequence of the Hexaploid Bread Wheat (Triticum Aestivum) Genome. Science, vol. 345, no. 6194, 2014. Print.Fuller, Dorian Q, and Leilani Lucas. Adapting Crops, Landscapes, and Food Choices: Patterns in the Dispersal of Domesticated Plants across Eurasia. Human Dispersal and Species Movement: From Prehistory to the Present. Eds. Boivin, Nicole, Rà ©my Crassard and Michael D. Petraglia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017. 304–31. Print.Huang, Lin, et al. Evolution and Adaptation of Wild Emmer Wheat Populations to Biotic and Abiotic Stresses. Annual Review of Phytopathology, vol. 54, no. 1, 2016, pp. 279–301. Print.Kirleis, Wiebke, and Elske Fischer. Neolithic Cultivation of Tetraploid Free Threshing Wheat in Denmark and Nort hern Germany: Implications for Crop Diversity and Societal Dynamics of the Funnel Beaker Culture. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany, vol. 23, no.1, 2014, pp. 81–96. Print.Larson, Greger. How Wheat Came to Britain. Science, vol. 347, no.6225, 2015. Print.Marcussen, Thomas, et al. Ancient Hybridizations among the Ancestral Genomes of Bread Wheat. Science, vol. 345, no. 6194, 2014. Print.Martin, Lucie. Plant Economy and Territory Exploitation in the Alps During the Neolithic (5000–4200  cal Bc): First Results of Archaeobotanical Studies in the Valais (Switzerland). Vegetation History and Archaeobotany, vol. 24, no. 1, 2015, pp. 63–73. Print.Roucou, Agathe, et al. Shifts in Plant Functional Strategies over the Course of Wheat Domestication. Journal of Applied Ecology, vol. 55, no. 1, 2017, pp. 25–37. Print. Smith, Oliver, et al. Sedimentary DNA from a Submerged Site Reveals Wheat in the British Isles 8000 Years Ago. Science, vol. 347, no. 6225, 2015, pp. 998–1001. Print.Watson, Traci. Inner Workings: Fishing for Artifacts beneath the Waves. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 115, no. 2, 2018, pp. 231-33. Print.

Beelzebufo Devil Frog Facts and Figures

Name: Beelzebufo (Greek for devil frog); pronounced bee-ELL-zeh-BOO-foe Habitat: Woodlands of Madagascar Historical Period: Late Cretaceous (70 million years ago) Size and Weight: About a foot and a half long and 10 pounds Diet: Insects and small animals Distinguishing Characteristics: Large size; unusually capacious mouth About Beelzebufo (Devil Frog) Slightly outweighing its contemporary descendant, the seven-pound Goliath Frog of Equatorial Guinea, Beelzebufo was the largest frog that ever lived, weighing about 10 pounds and measuring nearly a foot and a half from head to tail. Unlike contemporary frogs, which are mostly content to snack on insects, Beelzebufo (at least by the evidence of its unusually wide and capacious mouth) must have chowed down on the smaller animals of the late Cretaceous period, perhaps including baby dinosaurs and full-grown dino-birds in its diet. Reprising a common theme, this prehistoric amphibian evolved to its giant size on the relatively isolated Indian Ocean island of Madagascar, where it didnt have to deal with the large, predatory, theropod dinosaurs that ruled the earth elsewhere. Recently, researchers investigating a second fossil specimen of Beelzebufo made an amazing discovery: as big as it was, this frog may also have sported sharp spikes and a semi-hard, turtle-like shell along its head and back (presumably, these adaptations evolved to keep the Devil Frog from being swallowed whole by predators, though they may also have been sexually selected characteristics, the more heavily armored males being more attractive to females during Devil Frog mating season). This same team also determined that Beelzebufo was similar in appearance to, and perhaps related to, horned frogs, genus name Ceratophrys, which today live in South America — which may hint at the exact time of the breakup of the Gondwanan supercontinent toward the end of the Mesozoic Era.

The success of generic medicines in the worldwide pharmaceutical industry - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 23 Words: 6882 Downloads: 1 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Statistics Essay Did you like this example? Chapter 1 Executive Summary This research will look at the adoption of generic medicines in specific three countries in Europe (The Netherlands, Poland and Portugal). These three countries have a significant difference in adoption; the reasons for this adoption difference can be explained by several regulations which are implemented by these countries. In previous research it is proven that regulations have a direct effect on the adoption however, this research will have a closer look which regulations in specific are important to stimulate generic medicines in the market. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "The success of generic medicines in the worldwide pharmaceutical industry" essay for you Create order Results show that too much regulation around the entry of generic medicines in the market will lead to slow growth adoption in the market compared to countries which adopt less regulation. Recommendations to stimulate the generic medicines in the market will be presented in the last chapter. The problem background A lot of research has been done on the introduction of generic medicines. Examples include the obstacles to generic substitution in Sweden (Anderesson et al. 2005) and the use of generic medicines and the implications for the pharmaceutical market (King Kanavos, 2002). However, there is limited cross-country research examining the relationship between the implementation of regulation, the effects of incentives given to pharmacies and physicians and consecutive adoption of generic medicines. The available research is limited to one of these elements, there has not been made a direct consideration between these elements which influence the adoption of generic medicines. In 1995 the European Medicine Evaluation Agency (EMEA) offers a EU- wide authorization process which replaced the ongoing single authorization process of each country separately, this means that regulation is harmonized regarding the entry of generic medicines The EMEA will approve the generic entry of a medicine before it can be presented on the European pharmaceutical market. This centralized procedure has decreased the approval delays for generic medicines in the EU resulting in the fact that patent regulation and approval procedures for medicines no longer have a large effect on the development of generics (Danzon, et al. 2003). National regulation still has an impact concerning price and reimbursement approval which has to be authorized by national authorities. Moreover, it is examined that generics have had more success in countries with more flexible pricing policies (Garattini Tediosi, 2000) and previous research has shown that the prescription of generic medicines is dependent on the incentives given to pharmacist, and other parties (Hellerstein, 1998). However, with recent reforms in the national regulation systems across European countries, flexible generic pricing policies and incentives given by the national governments are no longer the main determinants of successful entry of generics on the market. Obligatory generic substitution systems and other regulations implemented by European governments have become at dominant factor in explaining the adoption of generic medicines as a consequence that incentives for physicians, pharmacists and patient have decreased due to the obligatory system (Timonen, et al. 2009). This thesis gives an overview of the relation between the adoption of generic medicines and the regulation in three European countries: The Netherlands, Portugal and Poland. These countries are chosen because they have different implementations in regulation concerning generics and the adoption rate in these countries differs significantly. Recommendations for European countries and a conclusion about the most effective method to increase the use of generic medicines in relation with regulation will be exposed. The problem statement The differences among three countries; (The Netherlands, Portugal and Poland), concerning the adoption of generic medicines in relation with regulation and influencing incentives in these European countries. The motive to present these specific three countries is resulting from the fact that the adoption level of generic medicines differs significantly. Therefore a clear image can be provided between the differences of adoption connected with the accompanying regulation adopted in that country concerning generic medicines Dependent variable: adoption of generic medicines Independent variable 1: regulation of generics medicines Research Questions Research question 1: What are the differences in regulation about the use of generic medicines among the Netherlands, Portugal Poland? Research question 2: What is the role of these regulations on the adoption of generics? Relevance The thesis should give European countries and in particular public policy makers, a clear image on the effects incentives can have concerning the adoption of generic when prescribing these medicines, and which type of regulation is the most effective for the increase in adoption of generics. Managerial perspective The prescription of generic medicines is intensively regulated. This results in many implications for pharmaceutical companies especially, concerning the implementation of generic medicines in the market. Considering, the fact that the regulation of the prescription of generic medicines has a direct effect on the use of generic medicines. Therefore the adoption level for generic medicines is likely to change when the regulation changes. Pricing strategies for pharmaceutical companies have a diminishing effect due to the strict pricing regulation implemented by public policy makers. Branding strategies are also complicated to implement in the pharmaceutical industry because of the many regulations adopted. However, branding strategies are very important; they can strengthen the bond between the buyer and the seller (Blackett Robins, 2001). Pharmaceutical companies have to make important decisions regarding the implementation of the generic medicines in the market. They should be aware of all regulation to be able to compete in the pharmaceutical industry. Academic perspective Country-specific results have been presented in several papers how regulation influences the use and adoption of generic medicines. However, a cross-country research on the effects of regulations implemented, in relation to the adoption of generic medicines. More specifically, the effects of incentives, given by policy makers, to pharmaceutical companies and the accompanying marketing strategies implemented by pharmaceutical companies, have not been examined earlier. Overview of the Rest of the Chapters Chapter 2: This chapter gives an overview on the question: What are the differences in adoption of generic medicines between the Netherlands, Portugal and Poland? These three countries will be investigated carefully; previous literature studies will give a clear image about the actual adoption of generic medicines in these countries. Background information will be presented to understand the structure of the chosen countries and the differences in adoption. Chapter 3: Data will be gathered to come to an answer to the research question 1: What are the differences in regulation about the use of generic medicines among the Netherlands, Portugal Poland? Chapter 4: Chapter four will explain the role of regulation on the adoption rate of generic medicines (research question 2). Chapter5: Public policy makers are in general in favour of increasing the use of generic medicines, because of the market advantages. Chapter 5 will give an overview of the most effective policy which is used among the three countries presented earlier in the thesis. Further recommendation to the public policy makers and limitations of the research will be dealt with in this chapter. A conclusion of this research will be presented. Chapter 2: differences in adoption of generic medicines This chapter will give an answer to the differences concerning the adoption of generic medicines between the Netherlands, PortugalandPoland. The level of generic medicine adoption differs significantly across Europe. This chapter will have a look at these differences and the resulting factors that have lead to these differences in adoption. Other implications such as different policy regulations and incentives given to pharmacist by the policy makers will be dealt with in chapter 3. They will be dealt whit in a separate chapter because they are dominant factors in the adoption of generic medicines. A distinction can be made between mature generic markets and developing generic markets (Simoens, 2009). The level of adoption of generic medicines in these countries differs from less than 10 per cent to more than 40 per cent. The share value in the market for generic medicines is 8.8 per cent for the Portugal, 19.8 per cent in the Netherlands and Poland ranks the top with 65.2 per cent (A Review on the European, n.d.). Comparing these figures with other European countries, Portugal falls in the lower range of adoption and Poland is situated in the upper range of the adoption level of generic medicines in their market. According to Simoens and Coster, (2006), Poland and the Netherlands are seen as mature generic markets in Europe, while Portugal is seen as a developing market. There are several factors (historical background and cultural elements), which have influenced the adoption rate of generic medicines in these countries. Clarifications of these elements are stated below. Historical background An explanation for the differences in adoption of generic medicines can partially be explained by the historical differences between the Netherlands, Portugal and Poland. In Western Europe, pricing and reimbursement policies naturally developed as an evolutionary economic process. However, this was not the case for Central and Eastern Europe states (CEE) which are now members of the EU. These CEE countries used to have a socialistic type of economy, and after the fall of the Berlin wall (1989) many of those countries faced political and economic bankruptcy. Large-scale reform was necessary in every single sector to guarantee their economical and political well being. The health care system was also a part of this sector and even today, ongoing reforms are taking place. There is still a lot that has to be done in the CEE countries, specifically within the health care system. Hospital decentralization, modernization and privatization and pricing and reimbursement policies are some examples of areas where further development is preferred (Kazakov, 2007). These necessary reforms and changes are also applicable to Poland. The Netherlands and Portugal do not suffer from these reforms, due to fact of not having a communistic history. Another implication of this socialist history is the fact that Poland was already used to adopt generic medicines, as brand medicines were not available in these countries due the absence of product patents until early 1990s (Simoens de Coster, 2006). Cultural elements Cultural sensitivity is one of the most widely accepted principles among public health (Resnicow, et all. 2000). According to Resnicow (2000), cultural sensitivity indicates The extent to which ethnic/cultural characteristics, experiences, norms, values, behavioral patterns, and beliefs of a target population as well as relevant historical, environmental, and social forces are incorporated in the design, delivery, and evaluation of targeted health promotion materials and programs (page 272). The relation between the pharmacist and the pharmaceutical representative can have a huge impact on the prescription of medicines and therefore on the adoption of generic medicines. Historical developments in Poland have created a positive attitude towards prescribing generic medicines, as prescribing generic medicines has been a common practice in Poland until the early 1990s. In the Netherlands, on the other hand, generic substitution is more driven by the pharmacist (Simoens de Coster, 2006). On average a pharmaceutical company will spend twice as much on marketing to the pharmacist and the public than on research and development (Zipkin, et all. 2005). A more detailed view about the adoption rate of generic medicines concerned the three countries (the Netherlands, Poland and Portugal) are presented below: The Netherlands The Dutch generic market has grown rapidly over time; public expenditure has increased from 185 million euro in 1994, resulting in a market share value of 8.5 per cent. In 2004 the market share has increased to 17.7 per cent; this means that the value has almost doubled. The market share increased also dramatically from 19.9 per cent in 1994 to 44.3 percent in 2004 (Simoens de Coster, 2006). Results from an EGA survey conducted in 2007; show that the market share of generic medicines has increased to more than 50 per cent (see figure 2 and 3 in appendix B). Poland Due to historical implications mentioned before, Poland has a very mature generic market. In 2006 the market shares of Poland were 60 per cent by value and close to 80 per cent by volume (see figure 2 and 3 in appendix B). Portugal In the 1990s the generic medicines adoption in Portugal did not exceed more than 1 per cent. An introduction in the generic policy in the year 2000 caused for an increase in market share of 8 per cent measured until 2004. An explanation of the generic policy will be provided in chapter 3 (Simoens de Coster, 2006). Recent results from an EGA survey implemented in 2007 show that the market share has slightly increased to almost 10 per cent (see figure 2 and 3 in appendix B). Chapter 3: differences in regulation about the use of generic medicines What are the differences in regulation about the use of generic medicines among the Netherlands, Portugal Poland? There are several domains in regulation which will eventually influence the structure of the market and determine how the pharmaceutical companies can operate most effectively in this pharmaceutical market. This thesis presents the most important domains where regulations are implemented; market authorisation, pricing, incentives, and marketing implications. Market authorisation In Europe, the process regarding market authorisation is very complex. Market access for generic medicines may differ from country to country; this holds there is little transparency regarding the entry of generic medicines in Europe. A pharmaceutical company may receive market authorisation to enter the market in a specific country. However, other regulations regarding the reimbursement and price of the generic product still need to be determined by the government. This means the process, concerning the entry of the generic medicine, can be delayed up to three times (A Review on the European Generic Pharmaceutical Market in 2005, n.d.). The EU directive was introduced to create a better system regarding the entry of generic medicines in Europe. There is a transparency directive, 89/105/EEC, which specifies that there is a 90 day limit regarding the reimbursement and pricing decision. However, the time delays vary from country to country (Garattini Tediosi, 2000). The table below (A Review on the European Generic Pharmaceutical Market in 2005, n.d.) gives an overview of the times delays per country for price approval to enter the market. With respect to the countries in this thesis, the table above (A Review on the European Generic Pharmaceutical Market in 2005, n.d.). shows the following: Poland does not have a time delay because the pricing and reimbursement approvals are granted together with the market authorisation of the generic medicines. In the Netherlands, we can see a delay of between 10 and 15 days which could be defined as a relatively efficient time to approval compared to other countries in Europe. Portugal is very inefficient with the entry of the generic medicines, the status of pricing and reimbursement will only be given after a 90-day delay (A Review on the European, n.d.). Pricing Price regulations are only applicable when the generic medicines will be reimbursed. The most effective regulation is a price restriction on the maximum reimbursement of that specific medicine or a maximum price that pharmaceutical companies may charge the medicine users (Danzon Keuffel, 2007). Most European countries, including the countries in this study, have introduced a reference price system. A reference price system entails that there are regulations which will restrict the reimbursement level of generic medicines, but that the price of the generic medicines itself will be uncontrolled. Under the reference price system, groups are clustered into certain reimbursement level, based either on the same compound or different compounds but with the same mode of action or with a similar name. All products that are placed in the same group are reimbursed at the same price per daily dose, which is also called the reference price. In general, the reference price in a group will be set at the level of the cheapest medicine or the median in that group. If pharmaceutical manufacturers price their product above the reference price, the user of the generic medicines needs to pay the outstanding amount above the reference price. There are two different pricing systems in Europe: a generic free pricing system and a generic price-regulated system. Both systems determine the degree of adoption of generic medicines. In a generic free pricing system companies can decide on the height of the price of a new generic medicine introduced in the market themselves, in contrary to a price regulated system (Simoens, 2010). The reference pricing system has three levels of implementation, the higher the level of the system is, the more the prices are regulated. Poland has a low reference pricing system, the Netherlands could be defined as a medium reference pricing system and Portugal uses a high reference pricing system. As presented in the table below (Bongers Carradinha, 2009), one can see which European countries fall in a regulated price system and have no free pricing system. Consumer implications The patients themselves (the demand side) play an important role in the prescription of generic medicines. Physicians and pharmacists and other contributing parties will prescribe generic medicines to reduce the costs for the payer, which is in this case the consumer of the medicine. Patient co-payment Pricing and reimbursement systems play a role for the patient. The patient will contribute to the financing of the health care system, in particular with the co-payment arrangement. This is a common practice in all European countries (with the exception of Malta), but the implementation of co-payment differs significantly across countries. Nevertheless, in all countries that employ a co-payment arrangement a financial contribution is made by the medicine user. Patient co-payment arrangements can strongly influence the end decision of the patient on which medicines to take (A Review on the European Generic Pharmaceutical Market in 2005, n.d.). The reimbursement of generic medicines is taken care of through an insurance model; however the co-payment arrangement is based on a percentage of the cost of the medicine (Kazakov, 2007). Pricing regulation related to the countries in the thesis; The Netherlands uses an enforcing pricing regulation, which sets a maximum for the pricing of medicines. In 1996, this system was implemented. In general, it led to a decrease of 15 per cent of the average medicine price in the market (Simoens de Coster, 2006). However, the prices of generic medicines in the Netherlands still tended to be higher compared to other EU countries. Mediation in short-term pricing strategies such as implementing similar pricing systems, have increased and stimulated the share in the markets for generic medicines, where competition already existed (Bongers Carradinha, 2009). Polish medicine prices tend to be lower compared to other EU countries. They work with a price regulated system for generic medicines. The pharmaceutical companies want to be absorbed in the reimbursement list for medicines. The reference price in Poland is set just below or just above the cheapest generic medicines in the Polish market (Simoens, 2009). Pharmaceutical companies may price their product above the reference price, taking into account that as a result they will not be placed on the reimbursement list (Kazakov, 2007). Portugal established a regulation which says that the minimum price difference of generic medicines and brand medicines should be a least 35 per cent in 2001. In 2005 Portugal agreed to reduce the overall medicine prices by 6 per cent. Of that 6 per cent 4.17 per cent had to be reduced by the pharmaceutical company and the other 1.93 per cent had to be reduced by the wholesalers and pharmacists. The reference price system was introduced in 2003 where the reference price was set at the level of the most expensive generic medicine (Simoens de Coster, 2006). Despite the fact Portugal has a developed market, the market share concerning generic medicines is still relatively low compared to other countries in Europe. Regardless, of the fact that companies producing generic medicines provide affordable treatments to patients, other savings can only be achieved if government supply side policy initiatives are designed to increase the competitiveness of generic medicines in the market (Bongers Carradinha, 2009). Incentives To establish a generic medicine market, the supply side (pricing system) needs to be supplemented by demand side policies which create incentives for physicians, pharmacists, and patients to use generic medicines (Simoens de Coster, 2006). The Netherlands Instruments to promote generic medicines have been in place for a long time and have been widely accepted in the Netherlands (Vogler Schmickl, 2010). Incentives for physicians The Dutch government has stimulated physicians to prescribe generic medicines, which is supported by an electronic prescription system. In the Netherlands it is customary to develop and implement guidelines and treatment protocols on how to prescribe generic medicines in order to efficiently increase the adoption of generic medicines. An important feature is that there are no sanctions for physicians who do not prescribe generic medicines (Simoens de Coster, 2006). Incentives for pharmacists Generic substitution is allowed for the pharmacist when the physician and the patient agree with it, however, it could be indicated by the physician that generic substitution is not permitted due to health reasons. This means that when a branded drugs patent has expired pharmacists are allowed to distribute a generic substitution unless indicated otherwise by the physician. Health insurers have also agreed upon several targets for the pharmacist in distributing generic medicines (Simoens de Coster, 2006). Generic substitution has been connected to financial incentives for the pharmacist for a long time, however these incentives have been abolished since 2004. Nevertheless, the adoption in the market of generic substitution has not decreased (Vogler Schmickl, 2010). Incentives for the patients In the Netherlands the patients do not have a financial incentive to buy generic medicines because there are no patient co-payments arrangements. Nevertheless, patients do have to pay the outstanding amount when the price of the medicines is above the reference price, which is set by the government (Simoens de Coster, 2006). Poland Incentives for physicians Physicians are not intensively encouraged to prescribe generic medicines. Due to the historical background physicians are already accustomed with the use and prescription of generic medicines (Simoens de Coster, 2006). Incentives for pharmacist Generic substitution is allowed by pharmacists; whenever a branded drug is prescribed a pharmacist may replace this by a generic substitution. Pharmacists are obliged to inform the patients about the generic substitution. Price reductions implemented by pharmaceutical companies encourage pharmacists to prescribe generic medicines (Simoens, 2009). Incentives for the patient There are four levels of reimbursement for the patient. The first level includes a fixed amount per prescription which will be reimbursed when these are essential medicines. The second and third level consist of supplementary medicines which will be charged to the patient through the co-patient system. The patients have to pay 30 to 50 per cent themselves. The fourth level holds that other prescribed medicines which are not on the reimbursement list will be fully paid by the medicine user (the patient). However, initiatives to inform the patients about generic medicines have not been presented (Simoens de Coster, 2006). Portugal Incentives for physicians In 2002, a regulation was implemented in Portugal which formulated that from that moment on physicians would be obliged to prescribe a generic medicine if possible. However, physicians and pharmacists are free to add brand medicines to prescriptions that include more than one medicine, of which at least one is generic. The physicians are to inform the patient about other generic medicines and the accompanying price differences. Even though guidelines are available, the system has not been fully implemented. An explanation for this is that the physicians and the pharmacists are neither being rewarded for prescribing, nor being punished when not prescribing generic medicines (Simoens de Coster, 2006). Incentives for pharmacists Physicians can indicate whether they permit generic substitution on the prescription form. In the cases that generic substitution is allowed by the physician, the pharmacists have to prescribe the cheapest generic medicines available. Pharmacists do not have any financial incentive to prescribe generic medicines as the generic margins for pharmacists have been dramatically low since the introduction of the regulation in 2005 (the overall reduction of generic medicines prices) (Simoens de Coster, 2006). Incentives for patients Portugal has 5 different levels of reimbursement. In the first level 100 per cent of the medicine will be reimbursed when they are classified as life saving. The second level holds that 95 per cent of the medicines will be reimbursed, the third level holds 70 per cent, the fourth level 40 per cent, and the fifth level holds a percentage of 20 per cent. Patients with a low income will receive a 15 per cent additional compensation on the stated reimbursement level. Until 2005, patients were rewarded with a 10 per cent additional reimbursement when they asked for a generic substitution. However, with the abolishment of the reward system of 10 per cent, the patient will now only receive a price reduction of 6 per cent for the use of generic medicines. The patient does not have an incentive but rather a discouraging effect to use generic medicines. Nevertheless, pro-generic campaigns have been introduced by the government since 2006; the effects of these campaigns are not yet clear (Simoens de Coster, 2006). Previous research shows that the patient co-payment arrangement in Poland and Portugal plays a visible role in stimulating the use and adoption for generic medicines (Simoens de Coster, 2006). For an overall overview of the regulation implemented across these three countries a table is presented below. Poland The Netherlands Portugal pricing Reference pricing low Medium high Patient co-payment yes no yes reimbursement 4 levels Pay excess when Above RP 5 levels Adoption level Very high mature market Medium mature market Low developing market Incentives Physician Not encouraged but accustomed to prescribe Stimulate to prescribe obligated pharmacist Allowed and have financial incentive Allowed unless indicated else Allowed but no financial incentive patient Financial incentive No financial incentive No financial incentive Marketing implications A generic medicine should appear under the international non-proprietary name (INN). This entails, that a generic medicine should be marketed without a commercial brand name but in fact, three categories there can be distinguished; branded generics (copies of generic medicines with their own brand name), semi-branded generics (products marketed under the INN following the name of the manufacturer of the medicines) and medicines marketed under INN (Garattini Tediosi, 2000). The EU directive 65/65/EEC was established, to approve marketing of a drug. An allowance for introducing a generic medicine and detailing these medicines should be supported by several data available of the generic medicines (for example clinical data.) There are a lot of restrictions concerning advertisements and promotion activities of pharmaceutical products. These are presented by the The European Parliament and the Council of the European Union (2004) .Together with price regulation, advertising plays an important role in the pharmaceutical market. In general patients are uninformed about the most effective and available treatments, they depend on the diagnosis and treatment suggestion from the physician. Since the physician will prescribe the medicine it can be stated that they will directly affect the extent of competition between different treatments and medicines available. Therefore it not remarkable that the physician is the target of huge advertisement campaigns and that detailing in the pharmaceutical industry is mainly focused on physicians (Knigbauer, 2006). The volume of detailing in the pharmaceutical market depends on several factors such as: the prevalence of the disease, the amount of competition for the medicine, the number of physicians who might prescribe the generic medicines, and like any other product in a market, taking into account the product life cycle of the product (Berndt, et al 2007). Chapter 4 What is the role of these regulations on the adoption of generics? Market authorisation Approval of generic medicines The success of a generic medicine depends on several factors including; patent, approval to the market, pricing and reimbursement. These factors eventually lead to successful product life cycle of a generic medicine. The generic medicines can be approved after the patent of the originator medicine is expired (Frequently asked questions about generic medicines, n.d.). Approval to the market will be regulated by the coordinating organization EMEA; they will approve a generic medicine, resulting in the fact that it can be launched on the EU market. The National authority of the EU countries will eventually approve the price and reimbursement authorization. These separated approvals can cause delays in the approval of a generic medicine in a country, while price and promotion regulation also affect the success of a product life cycle regarding a generic medicine (Danzon, 2003). Decrease in national medicine expenditure The national governments and the EMEA, which approve the market authorization for generic medicines, create a decrease in national medicine expenditure. A good regulation for generic medicines will increase the adoption level of generic medicines. The low development of new medicines and the increasing expiry dates of patent medicines has lead to a competitive generic market, the involving regulations (e.g: price regulations) will stimulate the adoption in the EU market (Garattini Tediosi, 2000). The ageing population in Europe, with its coherent prevalence age-diseases and the need for more specialized and individualised care treatments in Europe, will result in a considerable increase in pharmaceutical costs in the future. (see appendix figure 6) Pricing Introducing a controlling price system is a way to control supplier moral hazard. It applies to all services; this is also the case for the pharmaceutical industry. Consistent with this view of pharmaceutical price regulation, it can be seen that it has become a fundamental strategy for insurances to control the supplier moral hazard. In general it can be stated that price controls, in most countries, apply only when medicines are reimbursed by the public health insurance (Danzon Keuffel, 2007). Policy implications The reference pricing system which is implemented by the European countries plays a role in the economic pharmaceutical market. This means that the European countries influence the market entry of generic medicines and the price level of generic medicines on the supply side (Simoens de Coster, 2006). Subsequently, the reference price system will cause that pharmaceutical companies will decrease their prices, assuming that the demand for the generic medicine will become inelastic when pricing the product above the reference price (Danzon Keuffel, 2007). However, it is important to notice that the primary objective of a reference price system is to control the pharmaceutical expenditure by controlling the reimbursement level of medicines. The objective is not to stimulate generic use (Simoens de Coster, 2006). This means that countries in favour of free market pricing generally have higher medicine prices. High medicine prices stimulate generic market entry, in contrary to regulated price systems (e.g. Portugal) where regulation prices drive down the originator price over the life cycle of the medicine. This lowers the potential profit margin for a generic company and discourages market entry (Simoens de Coster, 2006). According to the internal EGA survey, in the case of compulsory prescriptions, doctors are encouraged to prescribe generics in 56 per cent more cases than when it is not compulsory. Only 11 per cent of European countries implement a compulsory subscription system. There are guidelines to inform doctors about the prescription and assist them in the procedure of prescribing (A Review on the European Generic Pharmaceutical Market in 2005, n.d) Incentives The consumer is not only responsible for the adoption of generic medicines in the market. The physician also plays an important role in the prescription of generic medicines. The physician will determine which specific medicines a patient will use and in which therapeutic class the medicines will be used. The therapeutic class will be determined from the input of the physicians and the patient together. Therefore it can be stated that this relationship is not only a principle agent relationship but that the patient- physician relationship can also be seen as a partnership due to the interaction of both parties (McCarthy, 2010). Overall, it can be stated that incentives given to physicians, pharmacists and patients have limited focus, in accordance with the improvability of regulation system incentives can stimulate an increase in adoption. Marketing implications Persuasive advertising namely, product differentiation stimulates generic medicines in the market. This will cause for lower prices of the medicines in specific after the patent is expired. The advantages of these lower prices have been explained earlier, in this chapter. Brand- name advertising will decrease the adoption in the market for generic medicines because price elasticity of demand in the pharmaceutical will decrease due to the fact that brand loyalty has increased (Knigbauer, 2007). Important to notice is that the regulations cannot affect the incumbent level of advertisement nor can they control the pharmaceutical firms whether they enter the market with generic medicines. However, regulations can manipulate the conditions under which the incumbent chooses to the profit maximization level. In addition health authorities can guide the extent physicians are allowed to accept gifts or sponsored reference trips to reduce the obligation of the physician to prescribe a specific brand or product. Detailing is generally allowed under strict condition concerning advertisement. It is assumed that detailing is mainly used to inform the physician or patient. Lenient price regulation will strengthen the advertisement advantages by allowing generic medicines in the market and restricting high patent prices (Knigbauer 2007). Chapter 5 Recommendations: General recommendations Time is an important factor when concerning the approval of generic medicines for the market. It can give a significant value to different patient groups, and therefore a reduction in the delay in approval for in the market of a generic medicine is crucial (Kazakov, 2007). This can be accomplished by a more transparent system. Considering the restrictions regarding promotion and advertisement of medicines, pharmaceutical companies have to find ways to introduce the product to the prescriber and the user of the generic medicine. Price competition also limits the revenue for pharmaceutical companies, this leads to a very competitive even rivalry pharmaceutical market. As a result, pharmaceutical companies have to respond to regulation in such way; they make a profit out of the regulation for their own interest. This complies with an ongoing regulation changes that have to be induced (Richard Frank, 2007). Another implication with price regulation can arise, when the price of generic medicines is too regulated. Resulting in a low percentage of competitive medicines available, causing a higher (monopolistic) price (Knigbauer, 2006). In other words, in a flexible pricing system, a pharmaceutical company has the opportunity to compete with other companies using pricing strategies taking into account the restrictions enforced by the national regulation in specific taken into account reference price. Therefore a flexible pricing system is recommended over a strictly regulated system (for example: Portugal). Other measures recommended are Pro generic measures. In particular, the areas of pricing and reimbursement mechanisms should be improved and be more transparent. Governments should also try to increase the knowledge of patients by informing them about generic medicines. This can be done through the channels of physicians and pharmacists (A Review on the European Generic Pharmaceutical Market in 2005, n.d.). Although there is no concrete or well defined policy concerning the encouragement of the physician in the countries where measures exist toward the encouragement of prescription of generic medicines by the physician have a higher adoption level compared to countries who do not adopt such measures. Therefore measures encouraging physicians to prescribe generic medicines (example: budgetary incentives or prescription monitoring) are recommendable for all European countries (Bongers Carradinha, 2009). Finally, it remains difficult to recommend one best fitting regulation to implement for all European countries due to the fact that the adoption level concerning generic medicines differs significantly across European countries and not all regulations fit when there is a difference in the maturity of the market. Therefore one strategy will not be compliable anymore for all European countries. However a more transparent and central European regulation model should guide all European counties into one direction. Specific recommendation for the Netherlands, Poland and Portugal Given, that the adoption rate of generic medicines in the three concerning countries presented in the thesis have a significant difference and taking into account the different regulation presented above. There can be made several recommendations for the concerning policy makers in the specific countries. The Netherlands As mentioned earlier in the thesis, generics have a better adoption rate when the country has introduced a flexible pricing system, however, it does result in a higher medicines price compared to other EU countries (Garattini Tediosi, 2000). The Netherlands has developed an electronic subscription system however this is not completely introduced yet; a complete implementation of this system together with better transparency concerning pricing should create a competitive generic market. Poland Poland has chosen for a low Reference Pricing system by putting the reimbursement level on the cheapest generic medicine. When Poland switches to a flexible pricing system the adoption rate can increase, this is examined in previous research (Garattini Tediosi, 2000). However Poland should take in account that medicine prices will increase. Portugal As presented earlier in chapter 3, regulated pricing system drive down the price of generic medicines; resulting in a discouraging entry for generic medicines. Therefore it would be recommended to abolish the regulated pricing system and implement a flexible pricing system. This encourages pharmaceutical companies to adopt in de Portuguese market. In general Portugal should create proper regulations and conditions that increase the competitiveness and stimulate the entry of generic medicines (Bongers Carradinha, 2009). Limitations The research presented above is focused on three chosen countries (The Netherlands, Poland and Portugal). Due to the different national policies and regulations some regulations applicable specific for the countries presented in the thesis may not be declared applicable to other European countries. Therefore assumptions and conclusions for all European countries cannot be made or are not representative. However, it is possible to present European countries a guideline what a favourable policy or regulation would be considering the outcomes of these countries. Further comparisons between European countries should be made. A better insight of the ultimate adoption of generic medicine can be investigated; this can be done by comparing all developed generic markets in Europe. A more detailed insight should be presented of the European countries concerning several strategies and temporary policy agreements to explain particular increases in a specific period of time in relation with the adoption of generic medicines in the market. In extension of this further research and more detailed and concentrated adoption results of generic medicines in the market should be retrieved. Policies and regulations concerning a further increase of generic medicines in the markets have not been investigated. Therefore developed generic markets should try to find new short-term strategies or regulations which can increase the total adoption in the market for generic medicines, this to prevent that the increase of adoption concerning generic medicines will stop. Perception of neither the physicians nor the patients is included as a mediating variable. Research is conducted about the perception of generic medicines concerning these parties, as mentioned previous in the research the patients can play an influencing role in the prescription of the drugs. This can have consequences when taking in account that European countries have different cultures and therefore different perceptions regarding generic medicines. Conclusion It can be concluded that countries which do not have a long-term or consistent generic medicine regulation implemented, are in general countries that have the smallest market volume in the generic medicine market (see figure 7 appendix). These countries are creating little awareness and economic benefits for the healthcare system. Savings for governments and affordable prices for patients are minimal (Bongers Carradinha, 2009). Regulations implemented in a country, have a direct effect on the adoption of generics medicines in the pharmaceutical market. Flexible pricing systems are favored above strict price regulations, it encourages the pharmaceutical industry to develop and establish a better generic market in the concerning country, competitiveness among pharmaceutical companies will increase. Moreover pharmacists, patients and physicians are also encouraged to use and prescribe generic medicines. A flexible pricing system results in increasing adoption of generic medicines in the market (example the Netherlands). In general, we can conclude that regulations concerning generic medicines can constraint or provide the adoption of generic medicines in the pharmaceutical market. The Highest market share concerning generic medicines is found in countries where the industry had historically the greatest pricing freedom among which The Netherlands (Lofgren, 2002). Too much regulation will cause no flexibility for the pharmaceutical industry to develop (example Portugal). Hence, cultural and historical aspects also remain an important factor that influences the adoption in the generics industry (example Poland). Marketing implications concerning generic medicines constrain the development of generic medicines. Pharmaceutical industries are very limited regarding advertisements and branding of the medicines, other regulations such as price and reimbursement regulations make the possibilities to enter the pharmaceutical market inflexible therefore, policies makers should take that in account and mainly consider flexible policies. Transparency of generic medicines in the pharmaceutical market is also an important factor is; it can reduce delays for an approval on the European market. Another increasing concern of the European governments is the sustainability of the healthcare system. The expenditure on pharmaceutical products is a significant component of the healthcare system. Generic medicines contribute to a sustainable healthcare system partly due to the reduction in costs (Bongers Carradinha, 2009). The importance of a sustainable healthcare system is acknowledged. However, the implementation of these sustainable healthcare systems can be implemented by balanced policies and regulations. On the one hand, the policies and regulations will take care of affordable prices for healthcare systems in general, which extends to affordable prices for the patients. But on the other hand, the generic medicines sector provides a continuous source of cost effective medicine treatments and generates yearly savings of more than 25 billion Euros for the European healthcare system. In addition generic medicines will create a competitive market resulting in a decrease of medicine prices (Bongers Carradinha, 2009).

Obsessive Compulsive Disorder ( Ocd ) - 2087 Words

Obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) was once thought to be extremely rare, but recent epidemiological studies have shown it to be the fourth most common psychiatric disorder (after substance abuse, specific phobias, and major depression). OCD is often a chronic disorder that produces significant morbidity when not properly diagnosed and treated. The mainstay of treatment includes cognitive behavioral therapy and medication management. The use of clomipramine in the 1960s and then the introduction of serotonin reuptake inhibitors in the 1980s represented important advances in the pharmacologic treatment of OCD. Despite effective treatment modalities, many patients demonstrate only a partial response or are resistant to available medications. SRI-resistant OCD is one of the few diagnoses in modern psychiatry for which invasive neurosurgical procedures remain part of the established treatment armamentarium. We review current treatment strategies used in the management of OCD symptoms. Introduction Obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) is a debilitating neuropsychiatric disorder with a lifetime prevalence of 2 to 3 percent and is estimated to be the 10th leading cause of disability in the world. Patients with OCD experience recurrent, intrusive thoughts (obsessions) and/or repetitive, stereotyped behaviors (compulsions) that last for at least one hour per day and significantly interfere with the individual s normal level of functioning. The intrusive obsessional thoughtsShow MoreRelatedObsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD)1756 Words   |  8 Pages Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) is a disorder that can affect children and adults. In order to fully understand OCD, many different areas of the disorder must be reviewed. First, OCD will be defined and the diagnosis criteria will be discussed. Secondly the prevalence of the disorder will be considered. 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Analysis Of “The Little Mermaid” By Hans Christian Andersen.

Analysis of â€Å"The Little Mermaid† by Hans Christian Andersen â€Å"The Little Mermaid† by Hans Christian Andersen is one of the worlds most cherished fairy tales. Through the years, this story has inspired its fair share of different adaptations and spinoffs, as well as intertwined itself in popular culture. Although it is widely considered a children’s story today, upon close examination, we can find various elements of literary devices and themes, all of which provide the seasoned reader with a deep connection to the story. To honor the tradition of story-telling, it is essential that a short summary of the story be given. Per Hans Christian Andersen’s account, the bottom of the ocean is nothing like what we humans imagine. Instead, a sea†¦show more content†¦She ultimately chooses death, but continues living as a â€Å"daughter of the air†. When first reading â€Å"The Little Mermaid†, the reader is sure to notice the imagery painted by Anderson. He finds a way to make a place we see as dark and abysmal, the sea floor, seem bright, vibrant, and full of joy. One sentence Hans Christian Andersen writes, â€Å"The most wonderful trees and plants are growing down there, with stalks and leaves that bend so easily that they stir at the very slightest movement of the water, just as though they were alive† (216), perfectly exemplifies this imagery. It is also important to take note of how the imagery changes by location. In the part of the sea where the witch lives, the imagery evokes the feeling of gloom and loneliness that one would naturally expect from the sea floor. Above the surface of the ocean, in the human world, the author uses imagery that quite frankly blows the beauty of our world out of proportion. Andersen writes, â€Å"The whole sky had looked like gold, she said, and the clouds—well, she just couldn’t describe how beautiful they were as they sailed, all crimson and violet, over her head.† (218) This makes something we find trivial seem l ike something everyone must see before they die. While some may view this as odd, it is important to consider that the story centers around a mermaid who has never seen these things before. Something that I believe the author does not emphasize enough is theShow MoreRelatedThe Rise Of Feminism Of The 19th And 20th Centuries2037 Words   |  9 Pagessociety and the influence they bring to children’s fundamental moral principles has enabled analysis of many aspects of sexual identity within society. The rise of literary gender criticism allowed examination of how sexual identity has influenced literary works and the influence it brings to society throughout history. 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